TEACHING STRATEGIES
HOW TO DESCRIBE LANGUAGE
Written By:
1.
Ichwan Zainudin (102120048)
2.
Indah Noviani (102120049)
3.
Iris Persnawati (102120050)
4.
Isti Robaina (102120051)
5.
Johan Budi Ifana (102120052)
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION SCIENCE MUHAMMADIYAH UNIVERSITY OF PURWOREJO
2012
FACULTY OF TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION SCIENCE MUHAMMADIYAH UNIVERSITY OF PURWOREJO
2012
PREFACE
Praise be to Allah, The cherisher
and sustainer of the worlds; God who has been giving His blessing and mercy to
the writer to complete the papers entitled "Teaching Strategis: How to
Describe Language."
This papers is submitted to
fulfill one of the requirements to gain college degree of English Study Faculty
in Open University of Muhammadiyah Purworejo.
In finishing this papers, the writer really gives his regards and thanks
for people who has given guidance and help; they are My Friends and the
lecturer, Mrs. Puspa Dewi M.Pd
Finally, the writers realizes
there are unintended errors in writing this papers. He really allows all
readers to give their suggestion to improve its content in order to be made as
one of the good examples for the next papers.
PURWOREJO, 01 NOVEMBER 2012
Writers
CHAPTER I
THE DEFINITION OF
LANGUAGE
A.
Definitions
according to the figures
·
According
to Sapir (1921:8): Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of
communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced
symbols.
·
In
their Outline of Linguistic Analysis Bloch & Trager wrote: (1942:3): a
language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social
group co-operates.
·
In
his Essay on Language, Hall (1968: 158): Language is the institution whereby
humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used
oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.
B.
Definition
in general
Language is the human capacity for
acquiring and using complex systems of communication. In other
words, language is System of conventional spoken or
written symbols used by people in a shared culture to communicate with each
other.
In
this chapter, we will describe about language, especially English. English is
the official language of Britain, the US, most parts of the Commonwealth, and
certain other countries. It is the native language of over 280 million people
and is acquired as a second language by many more. It is an Indo-European
language belonging to the West Germanic branch.
CHAPTER II
GRAMMAR ISSUES
A. Sentence
Construction
i.
The Subject
The subject is the person or thing the sentence is 'about'.
Often (but not always) it will be the first part of the sentence. The subject
will usually be a noun phrase (a noun and the words, such as adjectives, that
modify it) followed by a verb.
Once you have identified the subject, the remainder of the
sentence tells us what the subject does or did. This part of the sentence is
the predicate of the sentence. The predicate always includes the
verb and the words which come after the verb.
iii.
The Object
Some verbs have an object (always a noun or pronoun). The
object is the person or thing affected by the action described in the verb. Objects come in two types, direct
and indirect.
The direct object refers to a person
or thing affected by the action of the verb.
The indirect object refers to a Transitive /
Intransitive verbs
Verbs which don't have an object are called intransitive.
Some verbs can only be intransitive (disagree). In addition they cannot be used
in the Passive Voice e.g. smile, fall, come, go.
An 'adverbial' or 'adverbial phrase' is a word or expression
in the sentence that does the same job as an adverb; that is, it tells you
something about how the action in the verb was done.
v.
Complement
A complement is used with verbs like be, seem, look etc.
Complements give out the subject or, in some structures, about the object.
B.
Part Of Speech
When considering sentence grammar we
need to know various things:
What words can be used for subjects?How
do we join different sentence?
What can come before and after
nouns?etc.In other word,we need to be able to talk about parts of speech.
We can know look at each of this parts
of speech in more detail
1.
N oun Types
·
Countable / uncountable nouns
Some concrete nouns are countable when they refer to a separate, individual item, and uncountable when they refer to a substance related to that item, e.g.:
Some concrete nouns are countable when they refer to a separate, individual item, and uncountable when they refer to a substance related to that item, e.g.:
The little
boy was throwing stones. (countable)
The fire
place is made of stone. (uncountable)
There are
some nouns which have a countable sense describing a specific example of something,
and an uncountable sense which refers to a related action or idea in general,
e.g.:
Sam did a lovely drawing at
school today. (countable)
Sam has always been good at
drawing. (uncountable)
·
Singular nouns
There are some nouns which describe concepts which are either unique or only ever talked about as a single idea.. These nouns only occur in the singular form, and are referred to as singular nouns. Singular nouns behave like the singular form of countable nouns. They can be used with the definite article the, the indefinite article a / an, and sometimes occur with possessive or demonstrative pronouns, e.g.
There are some nouns which describe concepts which are either unique or only ever talked about as a single idea.. These nouns only occur in the singular form, and are referred to as singular nouns. Singular nouns behave like the singular form of countable nouns. They can be used with the definite article the, the indefinite article a / an, and sometimes occur with possessive or demonstrative pronouns, e.g.
The sun was beginning to set.
·
Plural
nouns
There are some
nouns in English which are considered to be inherently plural. These nouns are
referred to as plural nouns. They can be used with the definite article the,
possessive or demonstrative pronouns, and words like some and any. Often they
refer to things which we think of as consisting of two parts, e.g.:
You’ve broken my binoculars.
Can you pass me the scissors?
Many other
plural nouns also end in –s, and always refer to concepts which are thought of
as consisting of more than just one thing, e.g.:
All the hotel rooms have private facilities.
We were sitting in very pleasant surroundings.
Plural nouns
are sometimes formed from adjectives when describing a group of people which
share a particular characteristic, e.g.:
The rich are the only ones who will benefit.
·
Collective nouns
Nouns which
refer to groups of things or people (e.g: government, team, staff) are often
referred to as collective nouns. They differ from plural nouns in that they
have the special property of being able to occur with either a singular or
plural verb, depending on whether we think of them as a single, collective
concept, or a collection of individual things or people, e.g.:
My favourite team is losing.
His team are all wearing red.
Note that in
American English, collective nouns usually occur with a singular verb, e.g.:
Which team is winning/wearing red?
·
Compound
nouns refer to two or more nouns combined to form a single
noun (sister-in-law, schoolboy, fruit juice)
·
Noun Phrases : Some quite long phrases can have the same fungtion in
sentences as a single noun.Such phrases,which have a noun at there heartare
called noun phrases,e.g.’the man with the hat’,the tall grinning acrobat’,the
girls I met last night.
2. Verb Types
There are three important types of verb to be aware of:
auxiliary verbs, main verbs and phrasal verbs.
·
Auxiliary verbs:
these are ‘be’, ‘do’, and ‘have’ and the modal auxiliary verbs ‘shall’,
‘should’, will’, ‘can’, ‘could’, ‘may’, might’, ‘must’ or ‘ought’. They are
used with main verbs (see below) in affirmative sentences, negative sentences
and question formation.
EXAMPLES:
We are staying at our friend’s
house.
We have only just arrived
Note that we often use contractions with auxiliaries,
e.g. ‘don’t’ instead of ‘do not’, ‘we’re’ instead of ‘we are’.
EXAMPLES
He arrived at six o’clock.
He said that he had just seen a
ghost.
·
Phrasal verbs;
these are formed by adding an adverb or a preposition (or an adverb and a
preposition) to a verb to creat new meanings, e.g. ‘set out’ (‘We set out the
following day’ ar ‘He set out his agenda for the meeting’), which has a
completely different meaning from ‘set’ (e.g. ‘set an exame’, ‘set the table’)
or ‘put up with’ (‘I’m not going to put up with this anymore’), which has a
completely different meaning from ‘put’ (e.g. ‘He put her photographs with the letters’).
These new two- or three-word verb are single unit of
meaning. For example, ‘set out’ could mean leave on a journey or explain, ‘put
up with’ means tolarete, or stand.
Phrasal verbs confuse student of English because not only
do many other language not have this kind of meaning unit, but also it is
difficult to work out when you are dealing with a single unit of meaning (e.g.
‘She looked up the word in the
dictionary’) and when you are simply dealing with a verb and a following
preposition (e.g. ‘ She looked up at
him’.) In the second examlple, the meaning of ‘look’ has not been changed by
‘up’; in the first it has.
EXAMPLES
She ran over a dog.
I’ll just look over the plans before
we start.
3.
Verb Forms
We describe the form of verbs in the following ways.
Present: ‘Your brother is upstairs’, ‘I love it here’, ‘what’s
happening?’. ‘I’m not missing the plane.
Past: ‘Eleanor said goodnight’, ‘She cried’, ‘Her parents were
packing their suitcases’.
Simple: this is base form af a verb (e.g. ‘walk’, ‘do’, ‘run’)
Which can be inflected to agree with the subject (‘He walks’, ‘She does’, ‘It
runs’) or to indicate time and tense (‘They walked’, ‘She did’, ‘He ran as fast
as possible’).
Continues: continues verbs (also called progressive’) are formed
by adding ‘-ing’ to the base form and using it with the ver ‘to be’, e.g. ‘She
is writing a letter’, She was looking out of the window’.
Form and
meaning: it is tempting to think that
when a verb form is called the present
continuous or present simple, for
example, it must always refer to the present. Much of the time this is the
case, of course, e.g. ‘Look over there! He’s sitting in the drier’s sest’ or
Gillian has brekfast at seven o’clock every morning’, but the verb forms can
also have many other uses. In the question, ‘What are doing tommorew?’, the present
continuous refer to the future. In storyteling, we often use the present simple
to talk about the past, espesially to give a sense of drama and immediacy, e.g.
‘Last Friday, right? I arrive at the house and knock an the door....’.
Perfect verb: verb are those made with ‘have/had’ + the past
participle or ‘have/had been’ + the ‘-ing’ form of the verb, e.g. ‘ I have
lived here for six years’, They had just arrived’, ‘He’s been jogging’. ‘He
hadn’t listening’.
Participles: there are two participles
in English: present, e.g. ‘taking’,
talking’, ‘happening’, and past, e.g.
‘taken’, talked’, ‘happened’,’ gone’.
Regular
and irregular verbs: Regular verbs
take the ‘-ed’ ending in the past, e.g. ‘talked’, ‘happened’, ‘laughed’.
Irregular verbs have differenft past tense form, e.g. ‘ran’, ‘went’, ‘ bought’,
‘saw’, etc.
Active
and passive: Active sentences
have a subject (S), a verb (V) and an object (O), e.g.
A scene of utter chaos confronted her.
S V O
Passiveare
formed by the auxiliary + past
participle of verb in question the past participles.
Verb
complementation: this describes
what words and kinds pf words we can use after particular verbs. As we saw with
modal auxiliaries, some verb are followed by infinitives (‘I can swim’, ‘He should go’) some are followed
by ‘to’ + infinitive (‘I like to swim’,
‘He tried to save her’), some are followed by participles (‘I don’t enjoy running’), and some by ‘that’ + a new
clause . there are many other complementation patterns too. Some verbs can be
followed by more one grammatical pattern.
EXAMPLES
I like to watch TV / I like watching
TV.
I must go, (not I must to go.)
4.
Pronouns
Types of
pronoun: there are three basic types
of pronoun: personal pronouns, reflexive
(personal) pronouns and relative pronouns.
Personal
pronouns: personal pronouns are ‘I’,
‘you’, ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘we’, and ‘they’ and ‘it’ isn’t really personal at all! Not
only do they have these subject reliasation, however, but they can be object
pronouns (‘I saw him’), reflexive
pronouns (‘I cut myself’), and
possesive pronouns (‘Give it to me. It’s mine!’).
we can summarise personal pronouns in the following chart.
|
Subject
|
Object
|
Reflexives
|
possessives
|
|
I
You
He
She
It
We
You
They
|
Me
You
Him
Her
It
Us
You
Them
|
Myself
Yourself
Himself
Herself
Itself
Ourselves
Yourselves
Themselves
|
Mine
Yours
His
Hers
Its
Ours
Yours
theirs
|
Relative
pronoun: the pronoun ‘who’, ‘whose’,
‘where’, ‘which’, and ‘that’ are used to join clause / ideas. If we have the
following two ideas (1) ‘Isaw a girl’, (2) ‘she was wearing a beautiful blue
dress’, we can stick them together with a relative pronoun, e.g. ‘I saw a girl who was wearing a beautiful blue dress’.
We call ‘who was wearing a beatiful blue dress’ a relative clause.
5.
Adjectives
Adjectives can be used
before and after nouns. They can have many forms.
Comparative
and superlative: adjectives can be made
comparative (‘good à
better’, ‘nice à
nicer’, ‘young à
younger’) and superlative (‘best’, ‘nicest’, ‘youngest’). They fall into
a number of categories: one-syllable adjectives generally add ‘-er’ or ‘-est’
to become comparative and superlative; some adjectives are irregular,
like ‘good’, ‘bad’ etc.; adjectives which end in vowel + consonant double the
final consonant, like ‘big à
bigger’, ‘thin à
thinner’ etc.; and adjectives that end in ‘y’ usually change the ‘y’ to ‘i’
like ‘silly à
sillier’, ‘friendly à
friendlier’.
Longer
adjectives - three or more syllables - stay the same and are prefaced by ‘more’
or ‘most’. The same is true of some two-syllable adjectives ('more careful’,
‘most pleasant’) while others like ‘clever’ can be both ‘cleverer’ and ‘more clever’
in modern English usage.
|
adjective
|
comparative
|
superlative
|
|
good
big |
Better
bigger |
best
biggest |
Adjective order:
When we use a string of adjectives, there is a generally accepted order.
size à
colour à origin à material à purpose à noun
e.g. the small purple German silk evening
gown
the
large (
) (
) wooden (
) crate
Adjective and preposition: many adjectives are
followed by specific prepositions, e.g.
‘interested in’, ‘keen on’, ‘happy about’ etc.
Adjectives as nouns:
we can use some adjectives as if they were nouns, e.g. ‘the blind’, ‘the poor’
etc.
6.
ADVERBS
Adverbs and adverbial
phrases can be of time (‘early’, ‘late’, ‘yesterday morning’), manner
(‘He played well’, ‘She ran quickly’, ‘He spoke fiercely’ and place (‘They work
upstairs’, ‘I live in Cambridge’, 'You’ll burn in hell for
this’).
Adverb position:
adverbs usually appear at the end of sentences, but they can sometimes be used
at the beginning or in the middle.
Most
adverbs of frequency (‘always’, ‘usually’, ‘often’, ‘sometimes’ etc.) can
usually go at the beginning, middle or end of a sentence, e.g. ‘Sometimes he
rings me up in the morning’, ‘He sometimes rings me up in the morning’.
‘He
rings me up in the morning sometimes’. But this often depends on the
particular adverb being used (for example ‘never’ can only occur in the middle
position).
Adverbs
cannot usually come between a verb and its object. We say ‘I usually have sandwiches for lunch’
but not 'I have usually sandwiches for lunch’.
Modifying, adverbs:
adverbs can modify adjectives, e.g. ‘a wonderfully physical
performance’, ‘an unusually large
cucumber’, ‘a really fascinating
film’ etc.
7. Prepositions
Position of prepositions: prepositions
(‘at’, ‘in’, ‘on’, ‘for’, ‘of’, ‘with’ etc.) usually come before a noun but can
also come at the end of a clause with
certain structures. For example, we can say ‘The book’s on the
shelf or ‘It’s not something I’m very interested in.
Particular prepositions:
many words and expressions can only be followed by particular prepositions,
e.g. ‘anxious about’, ‘dream about/of, ‘good at’, ‘kind to’ etc.
Prepositions and adverbs:
some words can be both prepositions and also adverbs (often called adverbial
particles). In the sentence ‘She climbed down the ladder’, ‘down’ is a
preposition because it has an object (‘the ladder). In ‘She sat down’, it is an
adverb because it does not have an object.
8.
ARTICLES
An article is a kind of adjective which is always used
with and gives some information about a noun.
There are only two articles a and the, but they are used very often and
are important for using English accurately.
·
Determiners:
articles (‘the’, ‘a’, ‘an’) belong to a class of word called determiners. Other
examples of determiners are ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘these’, ‘those’, ‘some’, ‘all of’.
Determiners usually come before a noun or at the beginning of noun phrase, e.g.
‘a aple’, ‘the red car’, ‘some of my bestfriends’, ‘a Spnish teacher I know’.
·
Definite article: A
definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one (or ones)
identifiable to the listener. It may be something that the speaker has already
mentioned, or it may be something uniquely specified. The definite article in
English, for both singular and plural nouns, is the.
The children know the fastest
way home.
The sentence above
refers to specific children and a specific way home; it contrasts with
the much more general observation that:
Children know the fastest
way home.
The latter sentence refers to children in general,
perhaps all or most of them.
Likewise,
·
Indefinite articles: The word a (which becomes an
when the next word begins with a vowel - a,
e, i, o, u) is called the indefinite
article because the noun it goes with is indefinite or general. The meaning of the article a is similar to
the number one, but one is stronger and gives more emphasis. It is possible to say I have a book or I have one
book, but the second sententence emphasizes that I do not have two or three or some other number of books.
9.
CONJUNCTIONS and CONDITIONALS
·
Conjunction is a word that connects other words or groups of
words. In the sentence Bob and Dan are friends the conjunction
and connects two nouns and in the sentence He will drive or
fly, the conjunction or connects two verbs. In the
sentence It is early but we can go, the conjunction but connects
two groups of words.
·
Conditional sentences
are sentences
discussing factual implications or
hypothetical
situations and their consequences.
Languages use a variety of conditional constructions and verb forms (such as
the conditional mood)
to form such sentences.
Full conditional sentences contain two clauses: the condition
or protasis,
and the consequence
or apodosis.
If
it rains [condition], (then) the picnic will be cancelled
[consequence].
Syntactically,
the condition is the subordinate clause, and the consequence is the main
clause. However, the properties of the entire sentence are primarily determined
by the properties of the protasis (condition) (its tense and degree of
factualness).
These three conditional forms are often called first,
second, and third conditionals. It is useful to understand whether the are real
or unreal.
Conditional Overview with Examples
|
Present Real Conditional
|
Present Unreal Conditional
|
|
Past Real Conditional
|
Past Unreal Conditional
|
|
Future Real Conditional
|
Future Unreal Conditional
|
10.
FORMS AND MEANINGS
·
One form, many meanings: Individual words can mean more than one thing too, for
example, ‘book’ (= something to read, to reserve, a list of bets etc), ‘beat’
(= to wi, to hit, to mix (an egg), the ‘puls’ ( of music/ a heart) ) and ‘can’
( = ability, permission, probability – and a container made of alumunium).
·
One meaning, many forms: one form can have many meanigs, therefore, but it is
also true that a meaning or concept can be expressed in many different ways. Consider, for example,
the concept of ‘the future’.
CHAPTER III
LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS
According
to M.A.K Halliday in Brown (1980: 194
-195), the function of language are the following:
a.
instrumental function (to serve the environment)
b.
regulatory
function (to control events)
c.
function representation (to make statements, convey
facts and knowledge, explain or report)
d.
interactional
function (to maintain continuity of social communication)
e.
personal function (to express feelings, emotions,
personal, profound reactions)
f.
heuristic
function (for obtaining and studying environmental science)
g.
imaginative
function (for systems serving imagination or ideas)
The following are major
functions of the human language in general:
· A means of conveying
information example, "The Kyneton train is now approaching on platform
4." This example is conveying to those waiting for the Kyneton train that
it has now arrived.
· An instrument of action
example, "Don't forget to feed the dog." This example is telling the
second person in the conversation to do something.
· To maintain social
relationships example, "G'day, how ya going?" Here we see that this
function allows us to make and keep friends. This function is usually more
informal than others.
· Acting as a marker of
groups example, "He was out for a duck." This example would only be
heard by someone talking about the cricket, therefore establishing that the
people involved in the conversation are involved with cricket in one way or
another, marking them as a group.
· As an instrument of
cognitive and conceptual development. This is the power of language to
influence thinking. This is why we have many words that mean basically the same
thing, because they all have slight differences or are used in different
circumstances. For example if you could only say you were happy, but not
excited, thrilled, etc, then you would not be able to give as much detail.
·
As an art form, language can be purposed towards
beauty for beauty's sake.
CHAPTER IV
ENGLISH IN CONCEPT
A.
Speaking
and Writing
Ø
Characteristic of speech
Speech characteristics
can be roughly described by a few major features: speech flow, loudness,
intonation and intensity of overtones. Speech flow describes the speed at which
utterances are produced as well as the number and duration of temporary breaks
in speaking. Loudness reflects the amount of energy associated with the
articulation of utterances and, when regarded as a time-varying quantity, the
speaker's dynamic expressiveness. Intonation is the manner of producing
utterances with respect to rise and fall in pitch, and leads to tonal shifts in
either direction of the speaker's mean vocal pitch. Overtones are the higher
tones which faintly accompany a fundamental tone, thus being responsible for
the tonal diversity of sounds.
Ø
Writing devices
·
Dashes
A dash is noticeably longer than a hyphen. There are several
different dashes, but the most commonly used are the en dash (–) and the em dash (—).
§
The figure dash is a special
typographical character most often used in phone numbers. Since it's normally
unavailable in word processing, you can simply use a hyphen. (Example:
408‒555‒6792, or use 408-555-6792.)
§
An en dash (–) is most commonly used to
indicate a range of numbers. It is longer than a hyphen although a hyphen with
spaces surrounding it can be used if a dash is not available. In Microsoft Word, doing this will
automatically change the hyphen into an en dash. (Example: August
13–August 18, or pages 29–349. Note that there should be no space around the en
dash.)
§
An em dash is most often used to indicate a
break in thought or to set an appositive off from the rest of the sentence. It
can also be used to show a date when the time frame in question has not yet
ended (Example: John Smith, 1976—).
·
Exclamatory marks
The exclamation
mark,
or exclamation
point,
is a punctuation mark usually used after an interjection or exclamation to indicate strong feelings or high
volume (shouting), and often marks the end of a sentence. Example: “Watch out!”
·
New
paragraph
Here
is to do it:
Ø When you start in on a
new topic
Ø When you skip to a new
time
Ø When you skip to a new
place
Ø When a new person
begins to speak
Ø When you want to
produce a dramatic effect
·
Commas
o
Use
commas to separate words and word groups with a series of three or more. Example:
My $10 million estate is to be split among my husband, daughter, son, and nephew.
Omitting the comma after son would indicate that the son and nephew would have to split one-third of the estate.
My $10 million estate is to be split among my husband, daughter, son, and nephew.
Omitting the comma after son would indicate that the son and nephew would have to split one-third of the estate.
o
Use a
comma to separate two adjectives when the word and can be inserted between them.
Examples:
He is a strong, healthy man.
We stayed at an expensive summer resort. You would not say expensive and summer resort, so no comma.
He is a strong, healthy man.
We stayed at an expensive summer resort. You would not say expensive and summer resort, so no comma.
o
Use a
comma when an -ly adjective is used with other
adjectives.
NOTE: To test whether an -ly word is an adjective, see if it can be
used alone with the noun. If it can, use the comma.
Examples:
Felix was a lonely, young boy.
I get headaches in brightly lit rooms. Brightly is not an adjective because it cannot be used alone with rooms; therefore, no comma is used between brightly and lit.
Felix was a lonely, young boy.
I get headaches in brightly lit rooms. Brightly is not an adjective because it cannot be used alone with rooms; therefore, no comma is used between brightly and lit.
·
Capital
letters
2.
Use a capital letter to begin a sentence or to begin speech:
The man arrived. He sat down.
3.
Use capital letters for many abbreviations and acronyms:
G.M.T. or GMT (Greenwich Mean Time)
4.
Use a capital letter for days of the week, months of the
year, holidays:
Armistice Day
5.
Use a capital letter for countries, languages &
nationalities, religions:
China, France
6.
Use a capital letter for people's names and titles:
Anthony, Ram, William Shakespeare
7.
Use a capital letter for trade-marks and names of companies
and other organizations:
Pepsi Cola, Walkman
8.
Use a capital letter for places and monuments:
London, Paris, the Latin Quarter
9.
Use a capital letter for names of vehicles like ships,
trains and spacecraft:
the Titanic
10. Use a capital letter for titles of
books, poems, songs, plays, films etc:
War And Peace
11. Use capitals letters (sometimes!) for headings, titles of
articles, books etc, and newspaper headlines:
HOW TO WIN AT POKER
B. Pronounciation
I.
Sounds
Sounds are words made up of individual sounds (or phonemes).
Speech sounds can be represented visually by means of written symbols or
writing. Since phonetic transcription represents speech sounds consistently, it
can be used as a reliable guide to have control of the spoken language. /t
For consonant sounds, it represented by the list below:
/p/, /b/,/ t/,/ d/,/
k/, / g/, /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/ , /s/, /z/, /ʃ/ , /ʒ/, /h/, /tʃ, /dʒ/, /m/, /n/,
/ŋ/, /l/, /r/, /w/, /y/
For vowel sounds, it represented by
the following list:
/i:/, /I/, /ԑ/, /ӕ/, /e/, /e:/,
/a:/, /ʌ/, /ɒ/, /ɒ:/, /U/, /u:/, /Ei/, /oU/, /aI/, /aU/, /ɒI/, /Iə/, /ԑə/,
/Uə/, /ɒə/
II.
Stress
Stress
is the degree of force or loudness with which a syllable is pronounced so as to
give it prominence.
Word stress pattern:
a.
Monosyllabic words
·
When the words appears in a sentence-final position, and
·
When the words is used emphatically (or for purposes of
contrast).
b.
Bi-Syllabic words
·
If the second syllable of the bi-syllabic verb contains a
long vowel or diphtong, then the second syllable is stressed.
·
If the bi-syllabic verb ends with mor e than one
consonant, then the second syllable is stressed.
·
f the final syllable contains a short vowel and one of no
final consonant, then usually, the first syllable will be stressed.
c.
Multi-syllabic words
When words imclude more than two syllables. With
poly-syllabic or multi-syllabic words
(sometimes called heavy words), the rules of stressed placement start to
become ever more arbitrary with more exceptions than can easily explained away.
III.
Pitch and Intonation
a.
Pitch is some degree of lowness or highness of tone.
b.
Intonation is the gpoing up and down of pitch over
different syllables in an utterance.
CLOSING
In this papers we have:
1.
Made it clear that
this papers is only the breafest introduction to a huge subject and suggested
that it should be read.
2.
Studied sentence
construction, showing how sentences or constructed of and from subject, verbs,
objects, complements, and adverbials.
3.
Look at aspects
of nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
prepositions, determiners, and conjunctions.
4.
Noticed that a
grammatical form word doesn’t guarantee its meanings just as similiar concept
can be represented by different forms or words.
5.
Examined to
differences between speech and writing. Each has its different characteristic
and students need to know about this. As teachers, part of our job is to expose
students to written and spoken english.
6.
Looked at three aspects of pronounciations: sounds,
stress, and intonation.
REFERENCES
Sisviyanto,
Amir and Ramelan. 1985. ENGLISH
SUPRASEGMENTAL & SEGMENTAL PHONETICS. Semarang.
Brown,
Douglas. 2003. LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT: Principles and Classroom Practices. San
Fransisco: Pearson Education, Inc.
Dewi,
Puspa. 2012. TEACHING STRATEGIES. Purworejo: UMP.
